Vasundhra

SOURCE:

(A) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam

INDEX

SER 06 OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/03/understanding-complexity-of-j-i-h-d.html

SER 5 OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/03/justification-for-violence-in-islam.htm

SER 04 A OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/islam-and-violence-r.html

SER 04 OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/ser-04-of-x-serials-islam-and-violence.html

SER 03 OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/spread-of-islam-r.html

SER 02 OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/history-of-arabia-r.html

SER 01A OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/muhammad-in-islam-continued.html

SER 01 OF X SERIALS
https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/muhammad-in-islam.html

...... continued......from

https://bcvasundhra.blogspot.com/2020/02/muhammad-in-islam.html

Muhammad in Islam

Life of Muhammad

Citations

^ Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Nazim Adil; Kabbani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham (2002). Muhammad, the Messenger of Islam: His Life & Prophecy. ISCA. p. x. ISBN 978-1-930409-11-8. [Allah sent his message] through many prophets, including Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and our master Muhammad. [...]
^ John L. Esposito (2009). "Islam. Overview". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135. Profession of Faith [...] affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of God, the last and final prophet.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b F.E. Peters (2009). "Allāh". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135. the Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based [...] on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses, Jesus, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group". Pew Research Centre. April 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
^ According to Oxford Dictionaries, "Muslim is the preferred term for 'follower of Islam,' although Moslem is also widely used."
^ "The Global Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. 18 December 2012.
^ Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). "Allah". Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8.
^ İbrahim Özdemir (2014). "Environment". In Ibrahim Kalin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001. ISBN 9780199812578. When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment [...] The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator.
^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, according to Islamic tradition.
^ "People of the Book". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
^ Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden: Brill. p. 177. ISBN 9-0041-2726-7.
^ Moghul, Haroon. "Why Muslims celebrate a Jewish holiday". CNN. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
^ Bennett (2010, p. 101)
^ "Eschatology – Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
^ "Paradise (Jannat)". Al-Islam.org. 2016-04-26.
^ Esposito (2002b, p. 17)
^ * Esposito (2002b, pp. 111–112, 118)

"Shari'ah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c "British & World English: sharia". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 December2015.
^ Trofimov, Yaroslav (2008), The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine, New York, p. 79, ISBN 978-0-307-47290-8
^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
^ Esposito (2002b, pp. 4–5)
^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
^ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780415175876.
^ George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 245, 250, 256–257. New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.
^ King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis. 74 (4): 531–555. doi:10.1086/353360.
^ Hassan, Ahmad Y (1996). "Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century". In Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas (ed.). Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, August 1–5, 1994. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC). pp. 351–399. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
^ The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 125–258
^ Jump up to:^a ^b

"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.

Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."

"Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved December 20,2012. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.

"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population...
^ Jump up to:^a ^b See

"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2013-09-24. The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population.

"Shia". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the originalon December 15, 2012. Retrieved December 5,2011. Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...

"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Shia Islam represents 10–20% of Muslims worldwide...
^ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050date=2015-04-02". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9780415448512.
^ Diplomat, Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The. "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
^ "Middle East-North Africa Overview". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
^ "Region: Middle East-North Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 2011-01-27. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
^ "Region: Sub-Saharan Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 2011-01-27. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
^ Rowland, Richard H. "CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography". Encyclopaedia Iranica. pp. 161–164. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
^ "Middle East :: Azerbaijan — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2019-12-01.
^ "The Many Languages of Islam in the Caucasus". Eurasianet. Retrieved 2019-12-01.
^ Yusuf, Imtiyaz. "The Middle East and Muslim Southeast Asia: Implications of the Arab Spring". Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017.
^ "India invited as 'Guest of Honour' to OIC meet, Sushma Swaraj to attend". @businessline.
^ "Muslim Population by Country". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
^ "Islam in Russia". www.aljazeera.com.
^ "Main Factors Driving Population Growth". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
^ Burke, Daniel (April 4, 2015). "The world's fastest-growing religion is ..." CNN. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Lippman, Thomas W. (2008-04-07). "No God But God". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.
^ Editors, History com. "Islam". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
^ Dictionary listing for Siin roots derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk
^ Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 9780132230858.
^ "What does Islam mean?". The Friday Journal. 2011-02-06. Archived from the original on 2011-03-14.
^ Editors, History com. "Islam". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
^

Quran 6:125, Quran 61:7, Quran 39:22

Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. p. 4. Islam literally means "submission (to God)"² Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive (see Islam (term)^3,4
^ Quran 5:3, Quran 3:19, Quran 3:83
^

Quran 9:74, Quran 49:14

Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Esposito, John L. (2000-04-06). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 9780195107999.
^ Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2.
^ "Buddhism: Buddhism at a glance". BBC – Religions.
^ Kenneth G. Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English (ISBN 0231069898), p. 291: Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive.
^

Quran 112:1–4

Esposito (2002b, pp. 74–76)

Esposito (2004, p. 22)

Griffith & Savage (2006, p. 248)

D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created ... By Fateh Ullah Khan p. 298 [Khan, Fateh Ullah (2009). God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created Humankind to Worship Him and Appointed Him as Viceroy in Earth to See how He Behaves. Fateh Ullah Khan Gandapur. pp. 298–. ISBN 978-969-9399-00-8.
^ Turfe, Tallal Alie (1985). Islamic Unity and Happiness. TTQ, Inc. p. 37. ISBN 9780940368477.
^ What is Islam? By Jamaal Zarabozo p. 37. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Agwan, A.R.; Khan, N.K. (2000). A–E. Global Vision Publishing. p. 357. ISBN 9788187746003.
^ Bentley, David (1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 978-0-87808-299-5.
^

Quran 2:117

"Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
^

"Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.

Quran 51:56
^ David Leeming The Oxford Companion to World Mythology Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0 p. 209
^

"Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

Quran 2:186
^ Quran 50:16
^ Andreas Görke and Johanna Pink Tafsir and Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the Boundaries of a Genre Oxford University Press in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies London ISBN 978-0-19-870206-1 p. 478
^

"God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.

"Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.

L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Syed Anwer Ali Qurʼan, the Fundamental Law of Human Life: Surat ul-Faateha to Surat-ul-Baqarah (sections 1–21) Syed Publications 1984 University of Virginia Digitalized 22. Okt. 2010 p. 121.
^ S.R. Burge Journal of Qur'anic Studies The Angels in Sūrat al-Malāʾika: Exegeses of Q. 35:1Sep 2011. vol. 10, no. 1 : pp. 50–70
^ Stephen Burge Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0 p. 23.
^ Stephen Burge Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0 p. 79
^ Stephen Burge Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0 p. 29
^ Stephen Burge Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0 p. 22
^ Stephen Burge Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0 pp. 97–99.
^

Quran 35:1

Esposito (2002b, pp. 26–28)

W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
^ Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] ABC-CLIO, 18 May 2017 ISBN 9781610692175 p. 140.
^ Jane Dammen McAuliffe Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān Volume 3 Georgetown University, Washington DC p. 45
^

Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.

Esposito (1998, pp. 6, 12)

Esposito (2002b, pp. 4–5)

Peters (2003, p. 9)

Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.* Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
^ Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.
^ Esposito (2004, pp. 17–18, 21)
^ Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.
^

"Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

"Qur'an". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Esposito (2004, p. 79)
^

Esposito (2004, pp. 79–81)

"Tafsir". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^

Teece (2003, pp. 12–13)

Turner (2006, p. 42)

"Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: The word Quran was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are two different theoriesabout this term and its formation.
^ "Surah An-Nisa [4:164]". Surah An-Nisa [4:164]. Retrieved 2019-10-04.
^ "Surah An-Nahl [16:36]". Surah An-Nahl [16:36]. Retrieved 2019-10-04.
^ "Surah At-Tahrim [66:1]". Surah At-Tahrim [66:1]. Retrieved 2019-10-04.
^

Momem (1987, p. 176)^{[citation not found]}

"Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ * Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World(2003), p. 666* J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.* D.W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Read, Study, Search Online. Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
^ [Brown, Jonathan (2007). The Canonization of Al-Bukh?r? and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunn? ?ad?th Canon. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15839-9.
^ Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah, pp. 160–169 Dar al-Ma'aarif edition
^ Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. USA: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0.
^ "Part 1". Al-Islam.org.
^ "Chapter 4: The Hadith". Al-Islam.org.
^

"Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam(2003)

"Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".

L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Animals in Islam By Basheer Ahmad Masri p. 27
^ What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Second Edition: By John L. Esposito p. 130
^

Smith (2006, p. 89); Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p. 565

"Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)

Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.

"Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Quran 1:4
^ Quran 6:31
^ Quran 101:1
^ *Cohen-Mor (2001, p. 4): "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "* Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
^ "Hajj – ReligionFacts". www.religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
^ Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online
^ Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp. 3, 39, 85, 27–272
^ N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381–397
^

Farah (1994), p. 135

Momen (1987), p. 178

"Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (2004)
^

Esposito (2002b, pp. 18, 19)

Hedayetullah (2006, pp. 53–55)

Kobeisy (2004, pp. 22–34)

Momen (1987, p. 178)
^ Budge, E.A. Wallis (2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. ISBN 978-0-486-41721-9.
^ Skinner Keller, Rosemary; Ruether, Rosemary Radford; Marie Cantlon (2006). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: Native American creation stories. Indiana University Press. pp. 615–. ISBN 978-0-253-34687-2.
^

Pedersen, J.; Hillenbrand, R.; Burton-Page, J."Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

"Mosque". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, Zakat, Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479
^ Qurʼan, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller—an obligation (imposed) by Allah . And Allah is Knowing and Wise."
^ Ariff, Mohamed (1991). The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-981-3016-07-1.
^ "Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world?". IRIN. 2012-06-01. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
^ "Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries". Vice. 14 November 2013. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
^ Said, Abdul Aziz; et al. (2006). Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static. Taylor & Francis. p. 145. ISBN 9780415770118.
^ Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
^

Quran 2:177

Esposito (2004, p. 90)

"Zakat". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

"Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
^ Holt, P.M.; Ann K.S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis(2000). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-521-21946-4.
^ Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
^

Quran 2:184

Esposito (2004, pp. 90,91)

"Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Davids, Abu Muneer Ismail (2006). Getting the Best Out of Hajj By Abu Muneer Ismail Davids. ISBN 9789960980300. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Peters, F.E. (2009). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. p. 20. ISBN 978-1400825486. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Alhuseini, Sayed / Farouq M. (2012). Islam and the Glorious Ka'abah: none. iUniverse. pp. 61–. ISBN 978-1-4697-8590-5.
^

Farah (1994, pp. 145–147)

Goldschmidt (2005, p. 48)

"Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Nigosian, S.A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Islamic Law". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Vikør, Knut S. (2014). "Sharīʿah". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2014-06-04. Retrieved 2017-05-15.
^ Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J.(2001). Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-8156-2908-5.Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas(analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus)."
^ Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary IranRoutledge 2004 ISBN 9781135943554
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2009). "Law. Modern Legal Reform". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights". In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. pp. 337–359. ISBN 978-90-411-0179-2.
^ Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x. JSTOR 4092696.
^ Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; ISBN 978-0253209399^{[page needed]}
^ Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers. p. 38, K.S. Bharathi. 1998
^ Weiss (2002, pp. 3,161)
^

International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya p. 203

Quran 4:29
^ Karim, Shafiel A. (2010). The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments. Boca Raton, FL: Brown Walker Press. ISBN 978-1-59942-539-9.
^ Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock By Joanna Gray, Orkun Akseli Page 97
^

Ibn Majah Vol 3 Hadith 2289

International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya p. 202

Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and PracticeBy Noureddine Krichene p. 119
^

Abu Daud Hadith 2015

Ibn Majah Vold 3 Hadith 2154

The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment By Zamir Iqbal, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, Hossein Askari p. 75
^ Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. KPI. pp. 254–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0333-2.
^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus
^ Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. KPI. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0059-1.
^ Akgündüz, Ahmed; Öztürk, Said (2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths. IUR Press. pp. 539–. ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18
^

Brockopp (2003, pp. 99–100)

Esposito (2003, p. 93)

"jihad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, pp. 17–18
^ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
^

Firestone (1999, p. 17)

"Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
^ Peters, Rudolph; Cook, David (2014). "Jihād". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001. ISBN 9780199739356.
^ Tyan, E. (2012). "D̲j̲ihād". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189.
^ Firestone (1999, p. 17)
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, pp. 108–109, 118
^ Sachedina (1998, pp. 105–106)
^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72
^ Trimingham (1998), p. 1
^

Esposito (2003, p. 302)

Malik & Hinnells (2006, p. 3)

Turner (1998, p. 145)

"Afghanistan: A Country Study – Sufism". Library of Congress Country Studies. 1997. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. The Principles of Sufism. Amal Press. 2008.
^ Chittick (2008), pp. 3–4, 11
^ Erik Hornung Andreas Schweizer JenseitsreisenEranos 2009/2010 Schwabe Verlag Basel 2011 (German)
^ Alexander Knysh Islam in Historical PerspectiveRoutledge, 30.09.2015 ISBN 978-1-317-34712-5p. 214
^ Chittick, William C (2008). Sufism: A Beginner's Guide. ISBN 9781780740522. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1993). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. p. 192. ISBN 9780791415153. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
^ Schimmel, Annemarie (2014-11-25). "Sufism". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2018-06-26.
^ David Cook (2015). "Mysticism in Sufi Islam". Oxford Research Encyclopedias. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.93.
^ Bowker, John (2000). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001. ISBN 9780192800947.
^ Usha Sanyal. Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century. Modern Asiantudies (1998), Cambridge University Press.
^ "Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah". Oxfordreference.com.
^ Alvi, Farhat. "The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia" (PDF).
^ Johns, Anthony H (1995). "Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 26 (1): 169–183. doi:10.1017/S0022463400010560. JSTOR 20071709.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. August 9, 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
^ "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–186
^ Aminrazavi, Mehdi (2016). "Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Summer 2016 ed.).
^ Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Nigosian, S.A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
^

Waines (2003, pp. 93–96)

The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p. 339

Esposito (1998, p. 79)
^ Newby, Gordon D. (2002). A concise encyclopedia of Islam (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oneworld. p. 141. ISBN 978-1851682959.
^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 978-0060507145.
^ "Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?". 14 Publications. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
^ Eaton, Gai (2000). Remembering God: Reflections on Islam. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0946621842.
^ Qur'an, ^{[Quran 4:11]}.
^ Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
^

Quran 5:5

Curtis (2005, p. 164)

Esposito (2002b, p. 111)

Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine

Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws Archived 2007-05-02 at the Wayback Machine

Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine

Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
^ Corrigan, John; Denny, Frederick; Jaffee, Martin S (2016). Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. Routledge. p. 245. ISBN 9781317347002. Retrieved 22 January2016.
^ Muhammad Shafi Usmani. Maariful Quran. English trans. By Muhammad Taqi Usmani
^ Al-Sheha, Abdur Rahman. Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions. Riyadh. p. 65.
^ Bouhdiba, Abdelwahab, ed. (1998). The Individual and Society in Islam: Volume 2 of The different aspects of Islamic culture. UNESCO. p. 238. ISBN 9789231027420.
^ al-Sheha, Abdur Rahman. Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions. Riyadh. pp. 74–75.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Nigosian, S.A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
^ Oliver Leaman, ed. (2006). "The Qur'an". The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 9-78-0-415-32639-1.
^ Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
^ Khadduri, Majid (1984). The Islamic Conception of Justice. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780801869747.
^ Oliver Leaman, ed. (2006). "The Qur'an". The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
^ Imam Kamil Mufti (2006). Modesty: An Overview. IslamReligion.com Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Barazangi, Nimat Hafez; Zaman, M. Raquibuz; Afzal, Omar (1996). Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1382-4.
^ Amuzegar, Jahangir (1997). Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar. ISBN 9781860641046. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Curtis, Glenn E.; Hooglund, Eric (2008). Iran: A Country Study. Government Printing Office. pp. 196–. ISBN 978-0-8444-1187-3.
^ Almukhtar, Sarah; Peçanha, Sergio; Wallace, Tim (January 5, 2016). "Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites". The New York Times. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
^

Esposito (1998, p. 12)

Esposito (2002b, pp. 4–5)

F.E. Peters (2003), p. 9

"Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Editors, History com. "Islam". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
^ Editors, History com. "Islam". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
^ Editors, History com. "Islam". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
^

Quran 18:110

Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Ünal, Ali (2006). The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English. Tughra Books. pp. 1323–. ISBN 978-1-59784-000-2.
^ Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
^ Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36
^ Serjeant (1978), p. 4.
^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina. pp. 227–228 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date—specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R.B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World: Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. Annali dell'Islam, Volume I. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. Skizzen und Vorabeiten, IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974): p. 45.
^ R.B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1–42, Cambridge University Press.
^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R.B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p. 4.
^ "Constitution of Medina". Retrieved 7 October2014.
^

Peters (2003, pp. 78–79, 194)

Lapidus (2002, pp. 23–28)
^ Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Editors, History com. "Islam". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
^

Holt (1977a, p. 57)

Hourani (2003, p. 22)

Lapidus (2002, p. 32)

Madelung (1996, p. 43)

Tabatabaei (1979, pp. 30–50)
^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Rightly Guided Caliphs". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001. ISBN 9780195125580.
^ See

Holt (1977a, p. 74)

Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Holt (1977a, pp. 67–72)
^ Waines (2003) p. 46
^ Harney, John (January 3, 2016). "How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ?". The New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
^ Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, p. 137. Routledge, 2003.
^ Esposito (2010), p. 38
^ Hofmann (2007), p. 86
^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad p. 505
^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59
^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad p. 522
^ "Al-Muwatta'". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Noel James Coulson (1964). History of Islamic Law. p. 103. ISBN 9780748605149. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Houtsma, M. Th. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. Brill. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-90-04-09791-9.
^ Moshe Sharon, Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon. p. 264 [1]
^ Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 71–83)
^ Lapidus (2002)^{[citation not found]}, p. 86
^ Weiss (2002, pp. xvii, 162)
^ Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary IranRoutledge 2004 ISBN 9781135943554
^ Marlène Laruelle Being Muslim in Central Asia: Practices, Politics, and Identities BRILL, 11.01.2018 ISBN 9789004357242 pp. 20-21
^

Lapidus (2002, pp. 90, 91)^{[citation not found]}

"Sufism". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit“ Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)
^ "Mecca (Saudi Arabia)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
^ Esposito (2010, p. 88)^{[citation not found]}
^ Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-907461-38-8.
^ Morgen Witzel A History of Management Thought Taylor & Francis 2016 ISBN 9781317433354 p. 44
^ Shireen Hunter, Shireen T. Hunter The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations Or Peaceful Coexistence? Greenwood Publishing Group 1998 ISBN 9780275962876 p. 44
^

Lapidus (2002)^{[citation not found]}, p. 160

Waines (2003) pp. 126–127
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.
^ David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
^ Brater, D. Craig; Daly, Walter J. (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 67 (5): 447–450 [448]. doi:10.1067/mcp.2000.106465. PMID 10824622.
^ Toomer, Gerald (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-16962-2.
^ Haviland, Charles (2007-09-30). "The roar of Rumi – 800 years on". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
^ "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi". BBC. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
^ Monica M. Gaudiosi (1988). The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College. University of Pennsylvania.^{[page needed]}
^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)^{[citation not found]}
^

Holt (1977a, pp. 80, 92, 105)^{[citation not found]}

Holt (1977b, pp. 661–663)^{[citation not found]}

Lapidus (2002, p. 56)^{[citation not found]}

Lewis (1993, p. 84)^{[citation not found]}

Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Micheau, Françoise. "Encyclopedia of the History of Islamic Science: Technology, alchemy and life": 991–992. , in Rāshid, Rushdī; Morelon, Régis (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science: Technology, alchemy and life sciences. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-415-12412-6.
^ "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate". Planetseed.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
^ Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue" (PDF). Current Sociology. 54 (1): 112–132. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837.
^ Imamuddin, S.M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill. p. 169. ISBN 978-90-04-06131-6.
^ Young, Mark (1998). The Guinness Book of Records. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-553-57895-9.
^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (2): 175–182 [175–177]. Bibcode:1964JAOS...84..128H. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 pp. 23, 42, 84.

"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."
^ Haq, Syed (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISSN 1703-7603. Retrieved 2014-10-22.
^ G. J. Toomer. Review on JSTOR, Toomer's 1964 review of Matthias Schramm (1963) Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik Toomer p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method."
^ Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. Retrieved 24 September2013.
^ Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. 2 (4): 53–55. Retrieved 2008-09-25.
^ Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-30). "It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
^ Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-29). "Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
^ Anthony Parel, Ronald C. Keith Comparative Political Philosophy: Studies Under the Upas TreeLexington Books, 2003 ISBN 9780739106105 p. 186
^

"Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Hamad Subani The Secret History of IranLulu.com 2013 ISBN 9781304082893 74
^ Jens Peter Laut Vielfalt türkischer ReligionenAlbert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (German) p. 31
^ Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 9781438110257 p. 540
^ Andreas Graeser Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme Walter de Gruyter 1975 ISBN 9783110046731 p. 260
^ "Islam in China". BBC. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
^ Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ "The Spread of Islam" (PDF). Retrieved 2 November 2013.
^ "Ottoman Empire". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
^ Metcalf, Barbara (2009). Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 104.
^ Adas, Michael, ed. (1993). Islamic and European Expansion. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 25.
^ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. p. 292. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.
^ Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. Curzon. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] ABC-CLIO 2017 ISBN 9781610692175 pp. 1425–1429
^ Denise Aigle The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological HistoryBRILL, 28 October 2014 ISBN 978-9-0042-8064-9p. 110.
^ A.C.S. Peacock Early Seljuq History: A New Interpretation Routledge 2013 ISBN 9781135153694 p. 123.
^ Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and PracticeBy Mahmoud A. El-Gamal p. 122 [2]
^ The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts p. 917 [3]
^ The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey p. 91 [4]
^ Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321
^ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
^ Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, vol. 27, no. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), pp. 163–179, Published by: International Society for Iranian Studies [5]
^ The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227-228
^ Majumdar, Dr. R.C., History of Mediaeval Bengal, First published 1973, Reprint 2006,Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, ISBN 81-89118-06-4
^ Pradeep Barua The State at War in South Asia, ISBN 978-0803213449, p. 29-30
^ Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, ISBN 978-0691134840, Princeton University Press
^ Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005. ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2. Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.
^ "Mughal Coinage". Archived from the original on 2002-10-05. Sher Shah issued a coin of silver which was termed the Rupiya. This weighed 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee. It remained largely unchanged till the early 20th Century
^ Maddison, Angus (2003): Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics, OECD Publishing, ISBN 9264104143, pages 259–261
^ Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy (2009). How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500-1850. Brill Publishers. p. 174. ISBN 9789047429975.
^ Ishat Pandey (2017). The Sketch of The Mughal Empire. Lulu Publishers. ISBN 9780359221202.
^ Sanjay Subrahmanyam (1998). Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780521257589.
^ Abhay Kumar Singh (2006). Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650-1800, (Volume 1). Northern Book Centre. ISBN 9788172112011.
^ Binita Mehta (2002). Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle. Bucknell University Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN 9780838754559.
^ B. N. Pande (1996). Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies. University of Michigan. ISBN 9788185220383.
^ B. Cohen (2007). Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850-1948. Springer. pp. 159–161. ISBN 978-0-230-60344-8.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set Routledge 2013 ISBN 9781136913327pp. 270–271
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] ABC-CLIO 2017 ISBN 9781610692175 p. 665
^ Jonathan Brown The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon Brill 2007 ISBN 9789047420347 p. 313
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 9780710313560 p. 6
^ Spevack, Aaron (2014). The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri. SUNY Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 9781438453712.
^ Barbara Freyer Stowasser Women in the Qur'an, Traditions, and Interpretation Oxford University Press 1994 ISBN 978-0-199-87969-4
^ Karen Bauer Gender Hierarchy in the Qur'an: Medieval Interpretations, Modern ResponsesCambridge University Press 2015 ISBN 978-1-316-24005-2 p. 115
^ Aysha A. Hidayatullah Feminist Edges of the Qur'an Oxford University Press 2014 ISBN 978-0-199-35957-8 p. 25
^ Oliver Leaman The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia Taylor & Francis 2006 ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1 p. 632
^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. p. 170. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8
^ Lapidus (2002), pp. 358, 378–380, 624
^ Donald Quataert The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 9780521839105 p. 50
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 9781438110257 p. 260
^ Esposito (2010, p. 146)
^ "Graves desecrated in Mizdah". Libyan Herald. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
^ "New Turkey". Al-Ahram Weekly (488). 29 June – 5 July 2000. Archived from the originalon 4 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and PoliticsWipf and Stock Publishers 2015 ISBN 9781498201025 p. 177
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Henri Lauzière The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century Columbia University Press 2015 ISBN 9780231540179
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Robert Rabil Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism Georgetown University Press 2014 ISBN 9781626161184chapter: "Doctrine"
^ Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century
^ Marshall Cavendish Reference (2011). Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 113–. ISBN 978-0-7614-7929-1.
^ Robert L. Canfield (2002). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–. ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5.
^ "Search Results". oxfordreference.com.
^ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, p. 271
^ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8
^ Nigosian (2004, pp. 41)
^ Esposito (2004, pp. 118,119,179) and Lapidus (2002, pp. 823–830)
^ Rippin (2001, p. 288)
^ *Goldman, Merle (1986). "Religion in Post-Mao China". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 483 (1): 146–156. doi:10.1177/0002716286483001013.
^ p. 18*Elsie, Robert. 2000. A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1.
^ Perrin, Andrew (October 10, 2003). "Weakness in numbers". Time. Retrieved 2013-09-24.(subscription required)
^ "Huge rally for Turkish secularsim". BBC News. 2011-04-29. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
^ Saleh, Heba (2011-10-15). "Tunisia moves against headscarves". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, 2004
^ "Political Islam: A movement in motion". Economist Magazine. 3 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?". BBC News. 2011-08-09. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (2011-12-03). "Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-12-08.
^ "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 2010-12-26. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
^ "Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast". MSNBC. 2008-10-18. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit. The Economist. 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
^ Slackman, Michael (2008-12-23). "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
^ Slackman, Michael (2007-01-28). "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
^ Beech, Hannah (2007-02-22). "Why Indonesia matters". Time. Retrieved 2013-09-24.(subscription required)
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050, Pew Research Center
^ Onishi, Norimitsu (2001-11-01). "Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
^ "Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa". wwrn.org. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
^ Carl Bialik (9 April 2008). "Muslims May Have Overtaken Catholics a While Ago". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
^ "Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
^ "Islam Today". Islam: Empire of Faith (2000). PBS. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion.
^ "Understanding Islam". Susan Headden. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
^ "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
^ Coeli Fitzpatrick Ph.D., Adam Hani Walker Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes] ABC-CLIO, 25.04.2014 ISBN 9781610691789 p. 106–107
^

Esposito (2003, pp. 275,306)

"Shariah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

"Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer, 30.06.2017 ISBN 9783319526119 p.48
^ Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer, 2018 ISBN 9783319973555 p. 108
^ Marlène Laruelle Being Muslim in Central Asia: Practices, Politics, and Identities BRILL, 11.01.2018 ISBN 9789004357242 p. 21
^ Ed. Esposito The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press 1999 ISBN 9780195107999 p. 280
^ Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 9780710313560 page 8
^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001. ISBN 9780195125580.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Svante E. Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence M.E. Sharpe 9780765630049 p. 283
^ Robert W. Hefner Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 9780253223104 p. 170
^ Robert W. Hefner Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 9780253223104 p. 171
^ Bayram Balci Islam in Central Asia and the Caucasus Since the Fall of the Soviet UnionOxford University Press 2018 ISBN 9780190050191 p. 53
^ The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, pp. 37–38
^ The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243.
^ "Ayatollah Khamenei's fatwa: Insulting the Mother of the Faithful Aisha is prohibited". Khamenei.ir. 11 June 2016. Retrieved 21 January2019.
^ "Shiite leaders forbid insults against Sunnis". Al-monitor. 2014-07-11. Archived from the original on 2016-01-05. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
^

Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shi'ism pp. 237–254

Shia branches Archived 2004-10-25 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Who Are the Ahmadi?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
^

Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005. p. 8. Retrieved March 29, 2014. Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate

Larry DeVries; Don Baker; Dan Overmyer (2011-01-01). Asian Religions in British Columbia. University of Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1662-5. Retrieved March 29,2014. The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world

Juan Eduardo Campo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. Retrieved March 29, 2014. The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million

"Ahmadiyya Muslims". pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2013.

A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also Ahmadiyya by country.
^ Esposito, John L. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8.
^ Dhume, Sadanand (2017-12-01). "Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2018-07-14.
^ "BEKTĀŠĪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org.
^ Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim Political Participation in Europe Edinburgh University Press 2013 ISBN 978-0-748-67753-5 page 255
^ Robert Brenton Betts (2013-07-31). The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. pp. 14–15. ISBN 9781612345222. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
^ Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). "Islamophoobia in Europe!". New Europe. Brussels. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015. Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
^ Kirkham, Bri (2015). "Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive". Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2015. Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.
^ Pollack, Kenneth (2014). Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy. p. 29. ISBN 9781476733937. Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
^ Cughtai, Muhammad Ikram (2005). Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence. p. 454. Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.
^ Jones, Justin (201). Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism. pp. 25–26. ISBN 9781139501231.
^ Ahmed, Khaled. "Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni?". The Friday Times. Archived from the original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
^ Burns, Robert (2011). Christianity, Islam, and the West. p. 55. ISBN 9780761855606. 40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations
^ Tatari, Eren (2014). Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets. p. 111. ISBN 9789004272262. Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi
^ Lopez, Ralph (2008). Truth in the Age of Bushism. p. 65. ISBN 9781434896155. Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."
^ House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April2017.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Miller (2009)
^ Miller (2009, p. 11)
^ Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kone, Kassim (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-313-32825-1.
^ Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-567-09452-0.
^ "Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-16.(subscription required)
^ "Secrets of Islam". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
^ Miller (2009, pp. 15,17)
^ "The World Factbook – China". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
^ "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". State.gov. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
^ "Muslim Media Network". Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. Archived from the originalon 2008-03-27. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
^ Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.
^

Esposito (2004, pp. 2, 43)

"Islamic World". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.

"Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2013-09-24.

"Religion in Britain" (PDF). National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13. Retrieved 2006-08-27.
^ The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Archived 2010-06-17 at the Wayback MachineCouncil on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
^ "site". BBC News. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". nytimes.com. 4 November 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
^ Esposito (2010, p. 56)
^ "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica(2005)
^ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). Elizabeth Allo Isichei, A history of African societies to 1870, p. 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^ Richard Ettinghausen; Oleg Grabar; Marilyn Jenkins-Madina (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-300-08869-8.
^ Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199812578. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
^ Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com
^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine
^ "St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved July 8, 2019.
^ Erwin Fahlbusch (1999). The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 2. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 759. ISBN 9789004116955.
^ Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out. Prometheus Books. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-59102-068-4.
^ Kammuna, Ibn (1971). Examination of the Three Faiths. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Moshe Perlmann. pp. 148–149.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Oussani, Gabriel. "Mohammed and Mohammedanism". Newadvent.org. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
^ Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 22, 2006.
^ Minou Reeves, P. J. Stewart Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making NYU Press, 2003 ISBN 9780814775646 p. 93–96
^ Jump up to:^a ^b G. Stone Dante’s Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion Springer, 12.05.2006 ISBN 9781403983091 p. 132
^ "Islam and the Patterns in Terrorism and Violent Extremism". www.csis.org. Retrieved 2019-04-02.
^ "How Many Muslims Still Support Terrorism?". www.telospress.com. Retrieved 2019-04-02.
^ "Saudi Arabia – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2005". 2012-01-13.
^ Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books.
^ Modood, Tariq (April 6, 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach(1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.
^ Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for Historical Muhammad (1st ed.). Amherst, MA: Prometheus Books. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-57392-787-1.

Books and journals

Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 14 (1): 67–91. doi:10.1080/09596410305261.
Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9.
Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8.
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 978-1-57003-471-8.
Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513398-1.
Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4.
Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3.
Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513526-8.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0.
Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0.
Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.
Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518266-8.
Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0.
Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-2226-2.
Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512580-1.
Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7.
Griffith, Ruth Marie; Savage, Barbara Dianne (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8370-5.
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press.
Hawting, G.R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24073-4.
Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5.
Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN 978-1-59008-047-4.
Holt, P.M; Lewis, Bernard (1977). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29136-1.
Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S; Lewis, Bernard (1977). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-313-32472-7.
Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0453-3.
Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7102-0462-2.
Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285258-8.
Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83280-7.
Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9518-2.
Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-051605-5.
Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2.
Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3.
Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27408-1.
Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85859-5.
Miller, Tracy, ed. (2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-067700-8.
Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press.
Patton, Walter M. (1900). The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân. The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 16. p. 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 978-90-04-10314-6.
Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
Rahman, H.U. (1999). Chronology of Islamic History, 570–1000 CE(3rd ed.). Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1.
Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-511915-2.
Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2.
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 978-0-87395-272-9.
Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4.
Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5.
Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6.
Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-17458-9.
Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53906-7.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 978-0-85224-245-2.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman(New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0.
Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12066-2.

Encyclopedias

William H. McNeill; Jerry H. Bentley; David Christian, eds. (2005). "Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History". Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Paul Lagasse; Lora Goldman; Archie Hobson; Susan R. Norton, eds. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). "Islam". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–258. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Erwin Fahlbusch; William Geoffrey Bromiley, eds. (2001). "The Encyclopedia of Christianity". Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 978-0-8028-2414-1.
John Bowden, ed. (2005). "Encyclopedia of Christianity". Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522393-4.
Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Richard C. Martin; Said Amir Arjomand; Marcia Hermansen; Abdulkader Tayob; Rochelle Davis; John Obert Voll, eds. (2003). "Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8 https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). "The New Encyclopedia of Islam". New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0759101906.

Further reading

Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
Arberry, A.J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4.
Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
A. Khanbaghi (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5.
Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.
Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
Nigosian, S.A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0.
Schimmel, Annemarie (1994). Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791419823.
Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
Tausch, Arno (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8.
Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.